In order to obtain honest performance estimates for a learner all parts of the model building like preprocessing and model selection steps should be included in the resampling, i.e., repeated for every pair of training/test data. For steps that themselves require resampling like parameter tuning or feature selection (via the wrapper approach) this results in two nested resampling loops.

Nested Resampling Figure

Nested Resampling Figure

The graphic above illustrates nested resampling for parameter tuning with 3-fold cross-validation in the outer and 4-fold cross-validation in the inner loop.

In the outer resampling loop, we have three pairs of training/test sets. On each of these outer training sets parameter tuning is done, thereby executing the inner resampling loop. This way, we get one set of selected hyperparameters for each outer training set. Then the learner is fitted on each outer training set using the corresponding selected hyperparameters and its performance is evaluated on the outer test sets.

In mlr, you can get nested resampling for free without programming any looping by using the wrapper functionality. This works as follows:

  1. Generate a wrapped Learner (makeLearner()) via function makeTuneWrapper() or makeFeatSelWrapper(). Specify the inner resampling strategy using their resampling argument.
  2. Call function resample() (see also the section about resampling and pass the outer resampling strategy to its resampling argument.

You can freely combine different inner and outer resampling strategies.

The outer strategy can be a resample description ResampleDesc (makeResampleDesc())) or a resample instance (makeResampleInstance())). A common setup is prediction and performance evaluation on a fixed outer test set. This can be achieved by using function makeFixedHoldoutInstance() to generate the outer resample instance(makeResampleInstance()`).

The inner resampling strategy should preferably be a ResampleDesc (makeResampleDesc()), as the sizes of the outer training sets might differ. Per default, the inner resample description is instantiated once for every outer training set. This way during tuning/feature selection all parameter or feature sets are compared on the same inner training/test sets to reduce variance. You can also turn this off using the same.resampling.instance argument of makeTuneControl* (TuneControl()) or makeFeatSelControl* (FeatSelControl()).

Nested resampling is computationally expensive. For this reason in the examples shown below we use relatively small search spaces and a low number of resampling iterations. In practice, you normally have to increase both. As this is computationally intensive you might want to have a look at section parallelization.

Tuning

As you might recall from the tutorial page about tuning, you need to define a search space by function ParamHelpers::makeParamSet(), a search strategy by makeTuneControl*(TuneControl()), and a method to evaluate hyperparameter settings (i.e., the inner resampling strategy and a performance measure).

Below is a classification example. We evaluate the performance of a support vector machine (kernlab::ksvm()) with tuned cost parameter C and RBF kernel parameter sigma. We use 3-fold cross-validation in the outer and subsampling with 2 iterations in the inner loop. For tuing a grid search is used to find the hyperparameters with lowest error rate (mmce is the default measure for classification). The wrapped Learner (makeLearner()) is generated by calling makeTuneWrapper().

Note that in practice the parameter set should be larger. A common recommendation is 2^(-12:12) for both C and sigma.

# Tuning in inner resampling loop
ps = makeParamSet(
  makeDiscreteParam("C", values = 2^(-2:2)),
  makeDiscreteParam("sigma", values = 2^(-2:2))
)
ctrl = makeTuneControlGrid()
inner = makeResampleDesc("Subsample", iters = 2)
lrn = makeTuneWrapper("classif.ksvm", resampling = inner, par.set = ps, control = ctrl, show.info = FALSE)

# Outer resampling loop
outer = makeResampleDesc("CV", iters = 3)
r = resample(lrn, iris.task, resampling = outer, extract = getTuneResult, show.info = FALSE)

r

## Resample Result
## Task: iris-example
## Learner: classif.ksvm.tuned
## Aggr perf: mmce.test.mean=0.0400000
## Runtime: 5.50584

You can obtain the error rates on the 3 outer test sets by:

r$measures.test
##   iter mmce
## 1    1 0.06
## 2    2 0.04
## 3    3 0.02

Accessing the tuning result

We have kept the results of the tuning for further evaluations. For example one might want to find out, if the best obtained configurations vary for the different outer splits. As storing entire models may be expensive (but possible by setting models = TRUE) we used the extract option of resample(). Function getTuneResult() returns, among other things, the optimal hyperparameter values and the optimization path (ParamHelpers::OptPath()) for each iteration of the outer resampling loop. Note that the performance values shown when printing r$extract are the aggregated performances resulting from inner resampling on the outer training set for the best hyperparameter configurations (not to be confused with r$measures.test shown above).

r$extract
## [[1]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: C=1; sigma=0.5
## mmce.test.mean=0.0294118
## 
## [[2]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: C=2; sigma=0.25
## mmce.test.mean=0.0294118
## 
## [[3]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: C=2; sigma=0.25
## mmce.test.mean=0.0147059

names(r$extract[[1]])
## [1] "learner"    "control"    "x"          "y"          "resampling"
## [6] "threshold"  "opt.path"

We can compare the optimal parameter settings obtained in the 3 resampling iterations. As you can see, the optimal configuration usually depends on the data. You may be able to identify a range of parameter settings that achieve good performance though, e.g., the values for C should be at least 1 and the values for sigma should be between 0 and 1.

With function getNestedTuneResultsOptPathDf() you can extract the optimization paths for the 3 outer cross-validation iterations for further inspection and analysis. These are stacked in one data.frame with column iter indicating the resampling iteration.

opt.paths = getNestedTuneResultsOptPathDf(r)
head(opt.paths, 10)

##       C sigma mmce.test.mean dob eol error.message exec.time iter
## 1  0.25  0.25     0.10294118   1  NA          <NA>     1.463    1
## 2   0.5  0.25     0.11764706   2  NA          <NA>     0.036    1
## 3     1  0.25     0.07352941   3  NA          <NA>     0.043    1
## 4     2  0.25     0.07352941   4  NA          <NA>     0.040    1
## 5     4  0.25     0.08823529   5  NA          <NA>     0.042    1
## 6  0.25   0.5     0.13235294   6  NA          <NA>     0.041    1
## 7   0.5   0.5     0.07352941   7  NA          <NA>     0.043    1
## 8     1   0.5     0.07352941   8  NA          <NA>     0.042    1
## 9     2   0.5     0.07352941   9  NA          <NA>     0.037    1
## 10    4   0.5     0.10294118  10  NA          <NA>     0.042    1

Below we visualize the opt.paths for the 3 outer resampling iterations.

g = ggplot(opt.paths, aes(x = C, y = sigma, fill = mmce.test.mean))
g + geom_tile() + facet_wrap(~iter)

Another useful function is getNestedTuneResultsX(), which extracts the best found hyperparameter settings for each outer resampling iteration.

getNestedTuneResultsX(r)
##   C sigma
## 1 1  0.50
## 2 2  0.25
## 3 2  0.25

You can furthermore access the resampling indices of the inner level using getResamplingIndices() if you used either extract = getTuneResult or extract = getFeatSelResult in the resample() call:

getResamplingIndices(r, inner = TRUE)
## [[1]]
## [[1]]$train.inds
## [[1]]$train.inds[[1]]
##  [1] 122 139 148  93  60  28 146 141 126   1  38 117  10 124 129  34 101  36  91
## [20]   2  99  33  42  61  51  87  96  54   7 132 115 113  32 150  41  40  64  69
## [39]  12 110 112 106  31  78 109 102   9  44  84 104  56 147  86 130 123 105 125
## [58]  70 133 135 142  58 128 111  16  55
## 
## [[1]]$train.inds[[2]]
##  [1]  36 136 118  93 123   2 117  75  33 109  98  62 116 144  56 150  28   1  82
## [20] 115  20  86 125  29  14  44  11  17  54 133  91  60  18  99  73 104  37 132
## [39]   9   7  61  68  87  65 106  50 130 147  16  38 114 139  12 145  70 124 134
## [58] 146  58  42  55  31  74  77  26 148
## 
## 
## [[1]]$test.inds
## [[1]]$test.inds[[1]]
##  [1]  73  20  90  13  80  68  77  14  26 145  11  37 118 103 116  62 134  29  27
## [20]  98  65  30  18 100  82 144  22  50  74  17   5  75 114 136
## 
## [[1]]$test.inds[[2]]
##  [1] 141  69  90  41  34 112  13  80 103  84  32 110 142  27 122  30 135 113 102
## [20] 100 128  96  10 101 126 111  51  22  64 105   5  40  78 129
## 
## 
## 
## [[2]]
## [[2]]$train.inds
## [[2]]$train.inds[[1]]
##  [1] 143  56 119 108  48  49  85  43 120  24 135 146 149 114  12 133  40  36   6
## [20]  33 107  13 128  31  73 127  46 140  59  41  51  35 100  72   7  53  44  77
## [39] 150  20 105  74  90 118  52  92  79 137   3  57  16 121  87  45  76  80  30
## [58]  94  26  95  15  63 126  89  67 124
## 
## [[2]]$train.inds[[2]]
##  [1]  59 111   3  48  76  16 140 149   8   5 128  94  20  79  87  42  85  83  35
## [20] 138  62  56  21  44 121  25 135  18 144 114  45  89 127  36  88  81 101  92
## [39]  73  39 145  61  24 150  90  51  13   4 108  70  26 104 119 146 129  46  77
## [58]  17 133  97  23 107 120  63 143 118
## 
## 
## [[2]]$test.inds
## [[2]]$test.inds[[1]]
##  [1]   5  17  19  18  55  61  25  47   4 131 129 101 144  88  81  99  62  70 145
## [20]  50 111  23  21  39  97  58  42  71 104  66 138  78   8  83
## 
## [[2]]$test.inds[[2]]
##  [1] 126 100  19  15  55  40  43  47  74 105   7 131 124  49  12  53  99  33   6
## [20]  50  41  52  58  67  31  71  66  57  78  95  72  80 137  30
## 
## 
## 
## [[3]]
## [[3]]$train.inds
## [[3]]$train.inds[[1]]
##  [1]  63  45  10  75  69 113 106  92   1  29  89  47 142  81 122   6  65  25  71
## [20]  53  60 120  93 136   9 143 110  48  79  86  19   3  57  24  67 123  66 131
## [39] 127 140  23   2  85  72  76  39  46 119  82 138 130 149   8  35 116 125  14
## [58]  34 117  15  64   4  98  27 148 103
## 
## [[3]]$train.inds[[2]]
##  [1] 125 140 119 147  84  79  96  47  69  93   3  91 131  95  43  35 134 110  45
## [20]  85  60  27  53 103   6 137  49  67 115  83 116  76  25  64 149  97   8  52
## [39]  34  89  28   1  66  21  19  29  11  32 112   9 120   4 108 102  10 127 117
## [58] 138 113  75 141 143  39  59  22 132
## 
## 
## [[3]]$test.inds
## [[3]]$test.inds[[1]]
##  [1]  52  37  88  22 109  95 102  84 132  83 134 141 115 121 108  54  94 112  32
## [20]  38  43 139 147  49  28  59  21  97  68 107  91 137  96  11
## 
## [[3]]$test.inds[[2]]
##  [1] 130 122  14  37  63  92  82  88 109  57  24  71  72 121  81 142  54  46  94
## [20]  98  48  38  23 139  86   2 148  15  68 107 136 123 106  65

Feature selection

As you might recall from the section about feature selection, mlr supports the filter and the wrapper approach.

Wrapper methods

Wrapper methods use the performance of a learning algorithm to assess the usefulness of a feature set. In order to select a feature subset a learner is trained repeatedly on different feature subsets and the subset which leads to the best learner performance is chosen.

For feature selection in the inner resampling loop, you need to choose a search strategy (function makeFeatSelControl* (FeatSelControl())), a performance measure and the inner resampling strategy. Then use function makeFeatSelWrapper() to bind everything together.

Below we use sequential forward selection with linear regression on the BostonHousing (mlbench::BostonHousing() data set (bh.task()).

# Feature selection in inner resampling loop
inner = makeResampleDesc("CV", iters = 3)
lrn = makeFeatSelWrapper("regr.lm",
  resampling = inner,
  control = makeFeatSelControlSequential(method = "sfs"), show.info = FALSE)

# Outer resampling loop
outer = makeResampleDesc("Subsample", iters = 2)
r = resample(
  learner = lrn, task = bh.task, resampling = outer, extract = getFeatSelResult,
  show.info = FALSE)

r

## Resample Result
## Task: BostonHousing-example
## Learner: regr.lm.featsel
## Aggr perf: mse.test.mean=24.8753005
## Runtime: 7.01506

r$measures.test

##   iter      mse
## 1    1 22.28967
## 2    2 27.46093

Accessing the selected features

The result of the feature selection can be extracted by function getFeatSelResult(). It is also possible to keep whole models (makeWrappedModel()) by setting models = TRUE when calling resample().

r$extract
## [[1]]
## FeatSel result:
## Features (8): zn, chas, nox, rm, dis, ptratio, b, lstat
## mse.test.mean=26.8943900
## 
## [[2]]
## FeatSel result:
## Features (10): crim, zn, nox, rm, dis, rad, tax, ptratio, b, l...
## mse.test.mean=21.5240684

# Selected features in the first outer resampling iteration
r$extract[[1]]$x
## [1] "zn"      "chas"    "nox"     "rm"      "dis"     "ptratio" "b"      
## [8] "lstat"

# Resampled performance of the selected feature subset on the first inner training set
r$extract[[1]]$y
## mse.test.mean 
##      26.89439

As for tuning, you can extract the optimization paths. The resulting data.frames contain, among others, binary columns for all features, indicating if they were included in the linear regression model, and the corresponding performances.

opt.paths = lapply(r$extract, function(x) as.data.frame(x$opt.path))
head(opt.paths[[1]])

##   crim zn indus chas nox rm age dis rad tax ptratio b lstat mse.test.mean
## 1    0  0     0    0   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      84.52018
## 2    1  0     0    0   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      95.46348
## 3    0  1     0    0   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      74.97858
## 4    0  0     1    0   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      66.35546
## 5    0  0     0    1   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      81.49228
## 6    0  0     0    0   1  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      67.72664
##   dob eol error.message exec.time
## 1   1   2          <NA>     0.031
## 2   2   2          <NA>     0.037
## 3   2   2          <NA>     0.027
## 4   2   2          <NA>     0.030
## 5   2   2          <NA>     0.032
## 6   2   2          <NA>     0.031

An easy-to-read version of the optimization path for sequential feature selection can be obtained with function analyzeFeatSelResult().

analyzeFeatSelResult(r$extract[[1]])
## Features         : 8
## Performance      : mse.test.mean=26.8943900
## zn, chas, nox, rm, dis, ptratio, b, lstat
## 
## Path to optimum:
## - Features:    0  Init   :                       Perf = 91.377  Diff: NA  *
## - Features:    1  Add    : lstat                 Perf = 40.871  Diff: 50.506  *
## - Features:    2  Add    : rm                    Perf = 34.606  Diff: 6.265  *
## - Features:    3  Add    : ptratio               Perf = 31.673  Diff: 2.9328  *
## - Features:    4  Add    : dis                   Perf = 30.535  Diff: 1.1381  *
## - Features:    5  Add    : nox                   Perf = 28.968  Diff: 1.5667  *
## - Features:    6  Add    : zn                    Perf = 27.993  Diff: 0.97562  *
## - Features:    7  Add    : b                     Perf = 27.253  Diff: 0.73917  *
## - Features:    8  Add    : chas                  Perf = 26.894  Diff: 0.35905  *
## 
## Stopped, because no improving feature was found.

Filter methods with tuning

Filter methods assign an importance value to each feature. Based on these values you can select a feature subset by either keeping all features with importance higher than a certain threshold or by keeping a fixed number or percentage of the highest ranking features. Often, neither the theshold nor the number or percentage of features is known in advance and thus tuning is necessary.

In the example below the threshold value (fw.threshold) is tuned in the inner resampling loop. For this purpose the base Learner (makeLearner()) "regr.lm" is wrapped two times. First, makeFilterWrapper() is used to fuse linear regression with a feature filtering preprocessing step. Then a tuning step is added by makeTuneWrapper().

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
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## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
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## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
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## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
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## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.
# Tuning of the percentage of selected filters in the inner loop
lrn = makeFilterWrapper(learner = "regr.lm", fw.method = "FSelectorRcpp_information.gain")
ps = makeParamSet(makeDiscreteParam("fw.threshold", values = seq(0, 1, 0.2)))
ctrl = makeTuneControlGrid()
inner = makeResampleDesc("CV", iters = 3)
lrn = makeTuneWrapper(lrn, resampling = inner, par.set = ps, control = ctrl, show.info = FALSE)

# Outer resampling loop
outer = makeResampleDesc("CV", iters = 3)
r = resample(learner = lrn, task = bh.task, resampling = outer, models = TRUE, show.info = FALSE)
r

## Resample Result
## Task: BostonHousing-example
## Learner: regr.lm.filtered.tuned
## Aggr perf: mse.test.mean=23.5449481
## Runtime: 3.85235

Accessing the selected features and optimal percentage

In the above example we kept the complete model (makeWrappedModel())s.

Below are some examples that show how to extract information from the model (makeWrappedModel())s.

r$models
## [[1]]
## Model for learner.id=regr.lm.filtered.tuned; learner.class=TuneWrapper
## Trained on: task.id = BostonHousing-example; obs = 337; features = 13
## Hyperparameters: fw.method=FSelectorRcp...
## 
## [[2]]
## Model for learner.id=regr.lm.filtered.tuned; learner.class=TuneWrapper
## Trained on: task.id = BostonHousing-example; obs = 337; features = 13
## Hyperparameters: fw.method=FSelectorRcp...
## 
## [[3]]
## Model for learner.id=regr.lm.filtered.tuned; learner.class=TuneWrapper
## Trained on: task.id = BostonHousing-example; obs = 338; features = 13
## Hyperparameters: fw.method=FSelectorRcp...

The result of the feature selection can be extracted by function getFilteredFeatures(). Almost always all 13 features are selected.

lapply(r$models, function(x) getFilteredFeatures(x$learner.model$next.model))
## [[1]]
##  [1] "crim"    "zn"      "indus"   "chas"    "nox"     "rm"      "age"    
##  [8] "dis"     "rad"     "tax"     "ptratio" "b"       "lstat"  
## 
## [[2]]
##  [1] "crim"    "zn"      "indus"   "chas"    "nox"     "rm"      "age"    
##  [8] "dis"     "rad"     "tax"     "ptratio" "b"       "lstat"  
## 
## [[3]]
##  [1] "crim"    "zn"      "indus"   "chas"    "nox"     "rm"      "age"    
##  [8] "dis"     "rad"     "tax"     "ptratio" "b"       "lstat"

Below the tune results (TuneResult()) and optimization paths (ParamHelpers::OptPath()) are accessed.

res = lapply(r$models, getTuneResult)
res
## [[1]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: fw.threshold=0
## mse.test.mean=24.0256189
## 
## [[2]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: fw.threshold=0
## mse.test.mean=22.3639004
## 
## [[3]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: fw.threshold=0
## mse.test.mean=25.7198156

opt.paths = lapply(res, function(x) as.data.frame(x$opt.path))
opt.paths[[1]][, -ncol(opt.paths[[1]])]
##   fw.threshold mse.test.mean dob eol error.message
## 1            0      24.02562   1  NA          <NA>
## 2          0.2      67.30442   2  NA          <NA>
## 3          0.4      67.82551   3  NA          <NA>
## 4          0.6      67.82551   4  NA          <NA>
## 5          0.8      67.82551   5  NA          <NA>
## 6            1      67.82551   6  NA          <NA>

Benchmark experiments

In a benchmark experiment multiple learners are compared on one or several tasks (see also the section about benchmarking. Nested resampling in benchmark experiments is achieved the same way as in resampling:

The inner resampling strategies should be resample descriptions (makeResampleDesc()). You can use different inner resampling strategies for different wrapped learners. For example it might be practical to do fewer subsampling or bootstrap iterations for slower learners.

If you have larger benchmark experiments you might want to have a look at the section about parallelization.

As mentioned in the section about benchmark experiments you can also use different resampling strategies for different learning tasks by passing a list of resampling descriptions or instances to benchmark().

We will see three examples to show different benchmark settings:

  1. Two data sets + two classification algorithms + tuning
  2. One data set + two regression algorithms + feature selection
  3. One data set + two regression algorithms + feature filtering + tuning

Example 1: Two tasks, two learners, tuning

Below is a benchmark experiment with two data sets, datasets::iris() and mlbench::sonar(), and two Learner (makeLearner())s, kernlab::ksvm() and kknn::kknn(), that are both tuned.

As inner resampling strategies we use holdout for kernlab::ksvm() and subsampling with 3 iterations for kknn::kknn(). As outer resampling strategies we take holdout for the datasets::iris() and bootstrap with 2 iterations for the mlbench::sonar() data (sonar.task()). We consider the accuracy (acc), which is used as tuning criterion, and also calculate the balanced error rate (ber).

# List of learning tasks
tasks = list(iris.task, sonar.task)

# Tune svm in the inner resampling loop
ps = makeParamSet(
  makeDiscreteParam("C", 2^(-1:1)),
  makeDiscreteParam("sigma", 2^(-1:1)))
ctrl = makeTuneControlGrid()
inner = makeResampleDesc("Holdout")
lrn1 = makeTuneWrapper("classif.ksvm",
  resampling = inner, par.set = ps, control = ctrl,
  show.info = FALSE)

# Tune k-nearest neighbor in inner resampling loop
ps = makeParamSet(makeDiscreteParam("k", 3:5))
ctrl = makeTuneControlGrid()
inner = makeResampleDesc("Subsample", iters = 3)
lrn2 = makeTuneWrapper("classif.kknn",
  resampling = inner, par.set = ps, control = ctrl,
  show.info = FALSE)
## Loading required package: kknn

# Learners
lrns = list(lrn1, lrn2)

# Outer resampling loop
outer = list(makeResampleDesc("Holdout"), makeResampleDesc("Bootstrap", iters = 2))
res = benchmark(lrns, tasks, outer,
  measures = list(acc, ber), show.info = FALSE,
  keep.extract = TRUE)
res
##         task.id         learner.id acc.test.mean ber.test.mean
## 1  iris-example classif.ksvm.tuned     0.9800000    0.02222222
## 2  iris-example classif.kknn.tuned     0.9600000    0.04305556
## 3 Sonar-example classif.ksvm.tuned     0.4903819    0.50000000
## 4 Sonar-example classif.kknn.tuned     0.8725237    0.12827855

The print method for the BenchmarkResult() shows the aggregated performances from the outer resampling loop.

As you might recall, mlr offers several accessor function to extract information from the benchmark result. These are listed on the help page of BenchmarkResult() and many examples are shown on the tutorial page about benchmark experiments.

The performance values in individual outer resampling runs can be obtained by getBMRPerformances(). Note that, since we used different outer resampling strategies for the two tasks, the number of rows per task differ.

getBMRPerformances(res, as.df = TRUE)
##         task.id         learner.id iter       acc        ber
## 1  iris-example classif.ksvm.tuned    1 0.9800000 0.02222222
## 2  iris-example classif.kknn.tuned    1 0.9600000 0.04305556
## 3 Sonar-example classif.ksvm.tuned    1 0.5116279 0.50000000
## 4 Sonar-example classif.ksvm.tuned    2 0.4691358 0.50000000
## 5 Sonar-example classif.kknn.tuned    1 0.9302326 0.07142857
## 6 Sonar-example classif.kknn.tuned    2 0.8148148 0.18512852

The results from the parameter tuning can be obtained through function getBMRTuneResults().

getBMRTuneResults(res)
## $`iris-example`
## $`iris-example`$classif.ksvm.tuned
## $`iris-example`$classif.ksvm.tuned[[1]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: C=2; sigma=0.5
## mmce.test.mean=0.0294118
## 
## 
## $`iris-example`$classif.kknn.tuned
## $`iris-example`$classif.kknn.tuned[[1]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: k=5
## mmce.test.mean=0.0392157
## 
## 
## 
## $`Sonar-example`
## $`Sonar-example`$classif.ksvm.tuned
## $`Sonar-example`$classif.ksvm.tuned[[1]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: C=1; sigma=2
## mmce.test.mean=0.2285714
## 
## $`Sonar-example`$classif.ksvm.tuned[[2]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: C=0.5; sigma=0.5
## mmce.test.mean=0.2714286
## 
## 
## $`Sonar-example`$classif.kknn.tuned
## $`Sonar-example`$classif.kknn.tuned[[1]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: k=5
## mmce.test.mean=0.0714286
## 
## $`Sonar-example`$classif.kknn.tuned[[2]]
## Tune result:
## Op. pars: k=4
## mmce.test.mean=0.0666667

As for several other accessor functions a clearer representation as data.frame can be achieved by setting as.df = TRUE.

getBMRTuneResults(res, as.df = TRUE)
##         task.id         learner.id iter   C sigma mmce.test.mean  k
## 1  iris-example classif.ksvm.tuned    1 2.0   0.5     0.02941176 NA
## 2  iris-example classif.kknn.tuned    1  NA    NA     0.03921569  5
## 3 Sonar-example classif.ksvm.tuned    1 1.0   2.0     0.22857143 NA
## 4 Sonar-example classif.ksvm.tuned    2 0.5   0.5     0.27142857 NA
## 5 Sonar-example classif.kknn.tuned    1  NA    NA     0.07142857  5
## 6 Sonar-example classif.kknn.tuned    2  NA    NA     0.06666667  4

It is also possible to extract the tuning results for individual tasks and learners and, as shown in earlier examples, inspect the optimization path (ParamHelpers::OptPath()).

tune.res = getBMRTuneResults(res,
  task.ids = "Sonar-example", learner.ids = "classif.ksvm.tuned",
  as.df = TRUE)
tune.res
##         task.id         learner.id iter   C sigma mmce.test.mean
## 1 Sonar-example classif.ksvm.tuned    1 1.0   2.0      0.2285714
## 2 Sonar-example classif.ksvm.tuned    2 0.5   0.5      0.2714286

getNestedTuneResultsOptPathDf(res$results[["Sonar-example"]][["classif.ksvm.tuned"]])
##      C sigma mmce.test.mean dob eol error.message exec.time iter
## 1  0.5   0.5      0.2285714   1  NA          <NA>     0.031    1
## 2    1   0.5      0.2285714   2  NA          <NA>     0.032    1
## 3    2   0.5      0.2285714   3  NA          <NA>     0.032    1
## 4  0.5     1      0.2285714   4  NA          <NA>     0.033    1
## 5    1     1      0.2285714   5  NA          <NA>     0.033    1
## 6    2     1      0.2285714   6  NA          <NA>     0.034    1
## 7  0.5     2      0.2285714   7  NA          <NA>     0.045    1
## 8    1     2      0.2285714   8  NA          <NA>     0.032    1
## 9    2     2      0.2285714   9  NA          <NA>     0.031    1
## 10 0.5   0.5      0.2714286   1  NA          <NA>     0.033    2
## 11   1   0.5      0.2714286   2  NA          <NA>     0.033    2
## 12   2   0.5      0.2714286   3  NA          <NA>     0.044    2
## 13 0.5     1      0.2714286   4  NA          <NA>     0.032    2
## 14   1     1      0.2714286   5  NA          <NA>     0.032    2
## 15   2     1      0.2714286   6  NA          <NA>     0.032    2
## 16 0.5     2      0.2714286   7  NA          <NA>     0.031    2
## 17   1     2      0.2714286   8  NA          <NA>     0.032    2
## 18   2     2      0.2714286   9  NA          <NA>     0.043    2

Example 2: One task, two learners, feature selection

Let’s see how we can do feature selection in a benchmark experiment:

# Feature selection in inner resampling loop
ctrl = makeFeatSelControlSequential(method = "sfs")
inner = makeResampleDesc("Subsample", iters = 2)
lrn = makeFeatSelWrapper("regr.lm", resampling = inner, control = ctrl, show.info = FALSE)

# Learners
lrns = list("regr.rpart", lrn)

# Outer resampling loop
outer = makeResampleDesc("Subsample", iters = 2)
res = benchmark(
  tasks = bh.task, learners = lrns, resampling = outer,
  show.info = FALSE, keep.extract = TRUE)

res
##                 task.id      learner.id mse.test.mean
## 1 BostonHousing-example      regr.rpart      23.58119
## 2 BostonHousing-example regr.lm.featsel      24.75507

The selected features can be extracted by function getBMRFeatSelResults(). By default, a nested list, with the first level indicating the task and the second level indicating the learner, is returned. If only a single learner or, as in our case, a single task is considered, setting drop = TRUE simplifies the result to a flat list.

getBMRFeatSelResults(res)
## $`BostonHousing-example`
## $`BostonHousing-example`$regr.rpart
## NULL
## 
## $`BostonHousing-example`$regr.lm.featsel
## $`BostonHousing-example`$regr.lm.featsel[[1]]
## FeatSel result:
## Features (7): indus, rm, age, dis, ptratio, b, lstat
## mse.test.mean=29.4228023
## 
## $`BostonHousing-example`$regr.lm.featsel[[2]]
## FeatSel result:
## Features (9): zn, indus, chas, nox, rm, dis, ptratio, b, lstat
## mse.test.mean=26.1964766
getBMRFeatSelResults(res, drop = TRUE)
## $regr.rpart
## NULL
## 
## $regr.lm.featsel
## $regr.lm.featsel[[1]]
## FeatSel result:
## Features (7): indus, rm, age, dis, ptratio, b, lstat
## mse.test.mean=29.4228023
## 
## $regr.lm.featsel[[2]]
## FeatSel result:
## Features (9): zn, indus, chas, nox, rm, dis, ptratio, b, lstat
## mse.test.mean=26.1964766

You can access results for individual learners and tasks and inspect them further.

feats = getBMRFeatSelResults(res, learner.id = "regr.lm.featsel", drop = TRUE)

# Selected features in the first outer resampling iteration
feats[[1]]$x
## [1] "indus"   "rm"      "age"     "dis"     "ptratio" "b"       "lstat"

# Resampled performance of the selected feature subset on the first inner training set
feats[[1]]$y
## mse.test.mean 
##       29.4228

As for tuning, you can extract the optimization paths. The resulting data.frames contain, among others, binary columns for all features, indicating if they were included in the linear regression model, and the corresponding performances. analyzeFeatSelResult() gives a clearer overview.

opt.paths = lapply(feats, function(x) as.data.frame(x$opt.path))
head(opt.paths[[1]][, -ncol(opt.paths[[1]])])
##   crim zn indus chas nox rm age dis rad tax ptratio b lstat mse.test.mean dob
## 1    0  0     0    0   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      80.74823   1
## 2    1  0     0    0   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      70.11222   2
## 3    0  1     0    0   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      71.63520   2
## 4    0  0     1    0   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      64.69041   2
## 5    0  0     0    1   0  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      83.04175   2
## 6    0  0     0    0   1  0   0   0   0   0       0 0     0      68.37808   2
##   eol error.message
## 1   2          <NA>
## 2   2          <NA>
## 3   2          <NA>
## 4   2          <NA>
## 5   2          <NA>
## 6   2          <NA>

analyzeFeatSelResult(feats[[1]])
## Features         : 7
## Performance      : mse.test.mean=29.4228023
## indus, rm, age, dis, ptratio, b, lstat
## 
## Path to optimum:
## - Features:    0  Init   :                       Perf = 80.748  Diff: NA  *
## - Features:    1  Add    : lstat                 Perf = 37.629  Diff: 43.119  *
## - Features:    2  Add    : rm                    Perf = 32.289  Diff: 5.3397  *
## - Features:    3  Add    : dis                   Perf = 31.4  Diff: 0.88931  *
## - Features:    4  Add    : indus                 Perf = 30.321  Diff: 1.0794  *
## - Features:    5  Add    : ptratio               Perf = 29.775  Diff: 0.54598  *
## - Features:    6  Add    : b                     Perf = 29.469  Diff: 0.3058  *
## - Features:    7  Add    : age                   Perf = 29.423  Diff: 0.046036  *
## 
## Stopped, because no improving feature was found.

Example 3: One task, two learners, feature filtering with tuning

Here is a minimal example for feature filtering with tuning of the feature subset size.

# Feature filtering with tuning in the inner resampling loop
lrn = makeFilterWrapper(learner = "regr.lm", fw.method = "FSelectorRcpp_information.gain")
ps = makeParamSet(makeDiscreteParam("fw.abs", values = seq_len(getTaskNFeats(bh.task))))
ctrl = makeTuneControlGrid()
inner = makeResampleDesc("CV", iter = 2)
lrn = makeTuneWrapper(lrn,
  resampling = inner, par.set = ps, control = ctrl,
  show.info = FALSE)

# Learners
lrns = list("regr.rpart", lrn)

# Outer resampling loop
outer = makeResampleDesc("Subsample", iter = 3)
res = benchmark(tasks = bh.task, learners = lrns, resampling = outer, show.info = FALSE)
## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

## Warning in .information_gain.data.frame(x = x, y = y, type = type, equal =
## equal, : Dependent variable is a numeric! It will be converted to factor with
## simple factor(y). We do not discretize dependent variable in FSelectorRcpp by
## default! You can choose equal frequency binning discretization by setting equal
## argument to TRUE.

res
##                 task.id             learner.id mse.test.mean
## 1 BostonHousing-example             regr.rpart      22.16021
## 2 BostonHousing-example regr.lm.filtered.tuned      27.79428
# Performances on individual outer test data sets
getBMRPerformances(res, as.df = TRUE)
##                 task.id             learner.id iter      mse
## 1 BostonHousing-example             regr.rpart    1 23.14016
## 2 BostonHousing-example             regr.rpart    2 29.91067
## 3 BostonHousing-example             regr.rpart    3 13.42981
## 4 BostonHousing-example regr.lm.filtered.tuned    1 29.75924
## 5 BostonHousing-example regr.lm.filtered.tuned    2 38.05312
## 6 BostonHousing-example regr.lm.filtered.tuned    3 15.57047